The Importance of Fire Alarm Systems: Safeguarding Lives and Property

Fire alarm systems are a critical component of building safety designed to detect and alert occupants of a fire, enabling timely evacuation and minimizing property damage. Governed by the International Building Code (IBC), International Fire Code (IFC), and NFPA 72 (National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code), these systems are essential for compliance and safety in residential, commercial, and industrial settings. This article explores the importance of fire alarm systems, their role in saving lives and property, and real-world examples of their effectiveness.

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Why Fire Alarm Systems Are Essential

1. Early Detection of Fires

Fire alarm systems are designed to detect smoke, heat, or flames at the earliest stages of a fire. Early detection is crucial for:

• Giving occupants time to evacuate safely.
• Allowing emergency responders to arrive before the fire escalates.

2. Compliance with Safety Codes

The International Building Code (IBC) and International Fire Code (IFC) mandate the installation of fire alarm systems in most buildings. These codes ensure that structures are equipped with the necessary safety measures to protect occupants and property.

3. Reduction of Property Damage

Fire alarm systems can trigger automatic fire suppression systems (e.g., sprinklers), limiting the spread of fire and reducing property damage.

4. Integration with Emergency Systems

Modern fire alarm systems are integrated with other safety systems, such as emergency lighting, public address systems, and evacuation protocols, ensuring a coordinated response during an emergency.

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Key Standards and Codes

1. International Building Code (IBC)

The IBC outlines requirements for fire alarm systems based on the size, occupancy, and use of a building. It ensures that fire alarms are installed in high-risk areas and that they meet minimum safety standards.

2. International Fire Code (IFC)

The IFC focuses on fire prevention and safety measures, including the maintenance, testing, and inspection of fire alarm systems to ensure they remain operational.

3. NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code

NFPA 72 provides detailed guidelines for the design, installation, testing, and maintenance of fire alarm systems. It also covers advanced features like voice evacuation and mass notification systems.

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Real-World Scenarios: Fire Alarms Saving Lives and Property

1. The Station Nightclub Fire (2003)

• Incident: A fire broke out at The Station nightclub in Rhode Island, killing 100 people and injuring over 200.
• Lesson: The lack of a properly functioning fire alarm system delayed evacuation. This tragedy highlighted the importance of reliable fire alarms and strict compliance with safety codes.

2. MGM Grand Hotel Fire (1980)

• Incident: A fire at the MGM Grand Hotel in Las Vegas resulted in 85 deaths and over 700 injuries.
• Lesson: The hotel’s fire alarm system failed to alert occupants promptly. This disaster led to stricter fire safety regulations, including mandatory fire alarms in high-rise buildings.

3. Saved by Early Detection: Apartment Fire in New York (2019)

• Incident: A fire in a New York apartment building was detected early by the fire alarm system, allowing all residents to evacuate safely.
• Lesson: The functioning fire alarm system prevented injuries and fatalities, demonstrating the life-saving potential of early detection.

4. Warehouse Fire in Texas (2021)

• Incident: A fire alarm system in a Texas warehouse triggered sprinklers, containing the fire until firefighters arrived.
• Lesson: The system minimized property damage and prevented the fire from spreading to adjacent buildings.

5. World Trade Center (2011)

Facts:

1. Fire alarm and notification systems in many areas of the World Trade Center (WTC) initially operated after the plane impacts. (Source types: NIST, Port Authority reports, survivor testimony.)
2. Public-address (PA) systems and alarms provided audible instructions in parts of the towers and core areas immediately after the impacts. (Source types: survivor testimony, media transcripts, official investigations.)
3. Many building occupants began evacuating immediately after the impacts, before official evacuation orders, due in part to audible alarms, visible smoke, and crowd cues. (Source types: NIST, FEMA, eyewitness accounts.)
4. Stairwells and egress routes remained passable and usable for many occupants for a significant time after impact, enabling evacuation. (Source types: NIST WTC Investigation.)
5. Occupants below the impact zone in both towers evacuated successfully in large numbers; much of that evacuation was aided by functioning stairways, lighting, and signage. (Source types: NIST, 9/11 Commission.)
6. The WTC had a two-way radio system for firefighters; however, radio communication failures and interference occurred and hindered coordination. (Source types: FDNY after-action reports, NIST.)
7. Elevator use was largely not feasible after impact; most evacuations used stairs, and stairway pressurization and stair identification signage helped guide evacuees. (Source types: NIST, Port Authority.) 
   
   
   
8. Sprinkler systems in the towers were not operational in most of the impact zones because the aircraft impacts and fires damaged water mains and sprinkler risers in those floors. The limited operation of sprinklers where intact would have reduced fire spread locally. (Source types: NIST, FEMA.)
9. Fire alarm strobe lights and horns in many areas provided visual and audible cues, benefiting people with hearing or speech impairments in some locations. (Source types: survivor accounts, accessibility studies.)
10. The buildings’ structural and compartmentation features, along with functioning life-safety systems in undamaged areas, allowed tens of thousands of people to evacuate: approximately 50,000 of the towers’ occupants evacuated after the first plane strike, and overall many thousands survived because of available egress and alarm cues. (Source types: 9/11 Commission, NIST tallies.)
    
11. Some occupants above the impact zones became trapped due to loss of stairway access, heavy smoke, fire damage, and collapsed floors; life-safety systems could not overcome catastrophic structural damage in those upper floors. (Source types: NIST, FEMA, 9/11 Commission.)
12. Post-9/11 investigations (notably NIST’s multi-year WTC investigation) concluded that life-safety systems performed in many respects as designed in undamaged and accessible areas, but were overwhelmed where structural and system damage was catastrophic. (Source types: NIST final reports.)
13. Failures and limitations documented included smoke control failures in some areas, damaged sprinkler and water-supply systems where the aircraft impacted, and inadequate radio communications for firefighters—each limiting the effectiveness of emergency response and occupant evacuation in parts of the towers. (Source types: FDNY reports, NIST.)
14. Emergency procedures and building evacuation planning (both organized evacuation for lower floors and “stay in place” guidance for some upper floors) influenced outcomes; many organizations had evacuation plans that facilitated rapid descent by their occupants. (Source types: corporate evacuation logs, 9/11 Commission.)
15. Overall, documented evidence supports that functioning alarms, smoke control systems, stairways, signage, and other life-safety systems materially contributed to the large number of survivors from the WTC towers, even though those systems could not prevent all fatalities, especially where direct structural destruction occurred. (Source types: NIST, 9/11 Commission, FEMA.)

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Benefits of Fire Alarm Systems

1. Life Safety

Fire alarms provide early warning, giving occupants time to evacuate safely and reducing the risk of injuries or fatalities.

2. Property Protection

By detecting fires early and triggering suppression systems, fire alarms help minimize property damage and financial losses.

3. Insurance Premium Reduction

Many insurance companies offer lower premiums for buildings equipped with compliant fire alarm systems, recognizing their role in reducing risk.

4. Peace of Mind

Knowing that a building is protected by a reliable fire alarm system provides peace of mind to occupants, owners, and stakeholders.

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Conclusion

Fire alarm systems are not just a regulatory requirement—they are a vital safeguard for lives and property. By adhering to the International Building Code, International Fire Code, and NFPA 72, building owners can ensure their fire alarm systems are effective and reliable. Real-world examples demonstrate the life-saving potential of these systems, making them an indispensable part of modern safety infrastructure.

Investing in a properly designed, installed, and maintained fire alarm system is a small price to pay for the peace of mind and protection it provides. Stay compliant, stay safe, and protect what matters most.

Understanding the International Building Code’s Separation Requirements for Fire Alarm System Design

Why Separation Requirements Matter

The International Building Code (IBC) categorizes buildings into different occupancy classifications (e.g., residential, commercial, industrial) based on their use. Each classification has unique fire safety needs, and combining them without proper separation can lead to:

• Increased fire hazards due to incompatible uses.
• Complex evacuation procedures that may confuse occupants.
• Non-compliance with local building codes, resulting in penalties or project delays.

By treating each occupancy independently, fire alarm systems can be tailored to address specific risks, ensuring optimal protection for all occupants.

Key IBC Separation Requirements for Fire Alarm Systems

The IBC outlines several critical requirements for separating occupancies and designing fire alarm systems:

Fire-Rated Walls and Partitions

The IBC requires fire-rated walls or partitions to separate different occupancies. These barriers must meet specific fire-resistance ratings (e.g., 1-hour, 2-hour) based on the occupancy types. Fire alarm systems must be designed to detect fires on either side of these walls, ensuring early warning for all occupants.

Independent Fire Alarm Zones

Each occupancy classification must have its own fire alarm zone or detection system. This ensures that alarms are specific to the area where a fire originates, reducing confusion during evacuations. For example, a mixed-use building with retail (Mercantile) and residential (R-2) occupancies should have separate alarm zones for each.

Notification Appliances

The IBC requires audible and visual notification appliances (e.g., horns, strobes) to be installed in all occupancies. These devices must comply with the NFPA 72 standards for fire alarm systems. Notification appliances should be tailored to the occupancy type—for instance, louder alarms may be needed in industrial settings compared to residential areas.

Smoke and Heat Detection

Smoke and heat detectors must be installed based on the specific risks of each occupancy. For example, kitchens in a restaurant (A-2) may require heat detectors, while offices (B) may need smoke detectors. The IBC also requires detectors in common areas, such as hallways and stairwells, to ensure comprehensive coverage.

Emergency Communication Systems

In buildings with multiple occupancies, the IBC mandates emergency communication systems (ECS) to provide clear instructions during a fire. These systems must be capable of delivering messages to each occupancy independently.

Best Practices for Compliance

To ensure your fire alarm system meets IBC requirements, follow these best practices:

1. Conduct a thorough occupancy analysis to identify all classifications in your building.
2. Work with a licensed fire alarm designer to create a system tailored to your building’s needs.
3. Install fire-rated barriers to separate occupancies and prevent fire spread.
4. Test and maintain your fire alarm system regularly to ensure compliance and functionality.

Conclusion

Adhering to the IBC’s separation requirements is essential for designing effective fire alarm systems in buildings with multiple occupancies. By treating each classification independently, you can enhance safety, ensure compliance, and protect lives and property.

At Fire Alarms Online, we specialize in helping building owners and designers navigate complex fire safety regulations. Contact us today to learn more about our products and services tailored to meet IBC standards.

Occupancy Classifications and Fire Alarm Separation Requirements

The International Building Code (IBC) defines various occupancy classifications, each with unique fire safety requirements. Below is a breakdown of these classifications and the necessary separation measures to ensure independent fire alarm system design.

Occupancy Classification	Description	Required Separation	Fire Alarm Requirements
Residential (R)	Buildings used for sleeping purposes (e.g., apartments, hotels).	Fire-rated walls (1-2 hours) and smoke barriers.	Smoke detectors in bedrooms, hallways, and common areas; independent alarm zones for each unit.
Commercial (B)	Office buildings, banks, and professional services.	Fire-rated partitions (1 hour) between occupancies.	Smoke detectors in offices and common areas; manual pull stations and notification appliances.
Mercantile (M)	Retail stores, shopping centers, and markets.	Fire-rated walls (1-2 hours) separating occupancies.	Smoke and heat detectors in storage areas; notification appliances in public spaces.
Industrial (F)	Factories, warehouses, and manufacturing facilities.	Fire-rated walls (2-4 hours) based on hazard level.	Heat detectors in high-risk areas; emergency communication systems for large spaces.
Assembly (A)	Theaters, churches, and sports arenas.	Fire-rated walls (1-2 hours) separating occupancies.	Smoke detectors in assembly areas; voice evacuation systems for clear instructions.
Educational (E)	Schools, colleges, and training centers.	Fire-rated walls (1 hour) between classrooms and other areas.	Smoke detectors in classrooms and hallways; manual pull stations in key locations.
Institutional (I)	Hospitals, nursing homes, and detention facilities.	Fire-rated walls (2 hours) and smoke barriers.	Smoke detectors in patient rooms and corridors; emergency voice/alarm communication systems.
Storage (S)	Warehouses, parking garages, and storage facilities.	Fire-rated walls (2-4 hours) based on stored materials.	Heat detectors in storage areas; manual pull stations and notification appliances.

Key Notes:

• Fire-Rated Walls: Required to prevent fire spread between occupancies. Ratings vary based on occupancy types and hazard levels.
• Independent Alarm Zones: Each occupancy must have its own fire alarm zone to ensure targeted alerts.
• Notification Appliances: Audible and visual devices must comply with NFPA 72 standards.

Conclusion

Understanding the IBC’s occupancy classifications and separation requirements is essential for designing effective fire alarm systems. By treating each occupancy independently, you can ensure compliance, enhance safety, and protect lives and property. For expert guidance and products tailored to your needs, contact Fire Alarms Online today.

NFPA 241 The Importance of Fire Alarm Systems During Wood Frame Construction

Wood frame construction is a prevalent building method due to its cost-effectiveness, sustainability, and ease of assembly. However, wood is inherently combustible, making fire safety a critical concern during the construction phase. Furthermore, traditional fire protection systems such as automatic fire sprinklers and fire walls are not yet existent during the construction phase. One of the most effective ways to mitigate fire risks during construction is the implementation of a temporary fire alarm system.

This article dives deep into why fire alarm systems are indispensable during wood frame construction, with a focus on technical details, compliance requirements, and how to integrate them effectively.

Take a look at these statistics from 2017 through 2021 provided by NFPA:

1. 4,440 annual average fires in structures under construction, renovation, or being demolished. 
2. $370 million annual average cost of property damage in structures under construction, renovation or being demolished. 
3. 59 annual average civilian injuries in structures under construction, renovation, ore being demolished.
4. 5 annual average civilian deaths in structures under construction, renovation or being demolished. 
5. Cooking equipment was the leading cause of fires on construction sites.
6. Fires in structures under construction were most common in the afternoon and evening; however, fires that occurred between midnight and 6:00 AM accounted for just over 51% of the direct property damage.
7. 76% of the fires and structures under construction involved residential properties and accounted for the largest shares of deaths injuries and direct property damage.

Why Fire Alarm Systems for Wood Frame Construction are Crucial

1. Increased Fire Risks During Construction

According to NFPA, the leading causes of fires in unfinished wood frame construction sites are as follows:

• 
  Heating Equipment
• Intentional (Arson) 
• Hot Work Including:
• Welding
• Cutting
• Grinding
• Soldering
• Roof Work

Lack of fire-resistant finishes leaves exposed wood at risk.

Temporary heating devices and on-site fuel storage compound the hazard.

2. Safety of Personnel and Construction Crews

Construction sites are dynamic environments with numerous workers, increasing the need for rapid fire detection and response to ensure safety. A majority of construction workers will be wearing some form of hearing protection during the construction phase of these projects. The current standard emergency air horns located throughout these wood frame construction sites would be deemed useless as hearing protection and electric/gas powered tools make it difficult if not nearly impossible to hear the alert in the event of a fire emergency. 

3. Compliance with Codes and Standards

Most jurisdictions mandate temporary fire protection measures during wood frame construction.

The 2021 International Building Code (IBC), the 2021 International Fire Code (IFC) and National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards, particularly 2022 NFPA 241, emphasize the need for fire safety during wood frame construction, including fire alarm systems.

International Building Code (IBC) 2021 Chapter 33 - Safeguards During Construction

Section 3302.3 Fire Safety During Construction

Section 3303.7 Fire Safety During Demolition

"Fire safety during construction/demolition shall comply with the applicable requirements of this code and the applicable provisions of chapter 33 of the International Fire Code."

International Fire Code (IFC) 2021 Chapter 33 - Fire Safety During Construction and Demolition

Section 3301.1 Scope "This chapter shall apply to structures in the course of construction, alteration, or demolition including those in underground locations. Compliance with NFPA 241 is required for items not specifically addressed herein."

Section 3301.2 Purpose "This chapter prescribes minimum safeguards for construction, alteration, and demolition operations to provide reasonable safety to life and property from fire during such operations."

Section 3303.1 Program development and maintenance  "The owner or owner's authorized agent shall be responsible for the development implementation and maintenance of an approved written site safety plan establishing a fire prevention program at the project site applicable throughout all phases of construction, repair, alteration, or demolition work. The plan shall be submitted and approved before a building permit is issued. Any changes to the plan shall be submitted for approval."

Section 3303.7 Fire protection devices. "The site safety director shall ensure that all fire protection equipment is maintained in service in accordance with this code. Fire protection equipment shall be inspected in accordance with the Fire Protection program."

Section 3303.9 Impairment of fire protection systems "The site safety director shall insure impairments to any fire protection systems are in accordance with section 901."

NFPA 241 - Standards for Safeguarding Construction, Alteration, and Demolition Operations

NFPA 241 requires the designation of a Fire Prevention Program Manager (FPPM) who shall be responsible for keeping all of the jobsite personnel safe and ensuring the project is completed safely in accordance with all of the requirements within. The Fire Prevention Program Manager shall have the authority and budget to implement NFPA 241 via an approved and documented fire prevention program. Key elements of the NFPA 241 fire prevention program should be prepared by qualified personnel and include the following:

• Fire Protection
  
• Housekeeping
• On-Site Security
• Fire Protection Systems
• Pre-Fire Plan
• Communication Systems
• Documents for Training, Testing and Drills
• Special Hazards
• On-Site Fire Brigade or Emergency Response Personnel

NFPA 241 2022 reference: https://link.nfpa.org/free-access/publications/241/2022

Section 4.2 covers the fire protection systems for construction, alteration, and demolition of construction sites as well as outlines the procedure for the Fire Prevention Program Manager (FPPM) to notify the installing contractor when changes need to be made to previously installed temporary protection. 

Section 4.6 states "Where a fire alarm system is installed in a building under alteration, the system shall comply with NFPA 72."

Section 4.9.1 states "If fire detection supervision, off site monitoring, or building notification are required, the installation shall be placed in service in accordance with the Fire Prevention Program."

Section 4.9.2 states "The use of temporary measures to place fire detection supervision monitoring or alarms in service shall be as follows:"

1. "In accordance with the Fire Prevention Program" 
2. "Evaluated based on the hazard and the scope of the temporary measures"

Section 4.9.3 states "Fire detection supervision monitoring and alarms placed in service shall comply with NFPA 72 in accordance with the Fire Prevention Program."

Section 12.7 and 13.6 state " Fire protection systems that are temporarily placed in service shall be in accordance with the Fire Prevention Program."  

4. Property Protection and Investment

Fires during construction can result in catastrophic financial losses. Early fire detection systems in wood frame construction minimize damage and ensures the project stays on schedule. Between the years 2017 and 2021, the leading cause of fires in wood frame construction that lead to the most property damage was electrical distribution and lighting equipment with intentional arson coming in a close second. 

Types of Fire Alarm Systems for Wood Frame Construction Sites

1. Wireless Fire Alarm Systems

Wireless systems are ideal for construction sites as they are portable and easy to install. They use radio frequency communication through a mesh network to detect smoke, heat, and initiate alarms via contact closure from waterflow switches, tamper switches, or other systems. These wireless inputs can be programmed to trigger output relays or wireless notification appliances. With the use of wireless horns in conjunction with strobes lights, we can dramatically cut down on the evacuation time of fires in wood frame construction sites.

Advantages of temporary wireless fire alarm systems:

Quick installation. Without the need for extensive wiring and the ability to install and relocate equipment in minutes makes this option very favorable. 

Flexibility to adapt as the site evolves. Keep in mind as the wood frame construction site progresses, there will be a need to relocate detectors and notification appliances. 

Damage during construction. Let's face it, construction workers are not always gentle with the work environment. If a wired fire alarm system is utilized, there is a great chance the expensive linear heat detection cables will be damaged or cut. This can create very expensive service calls for the client as well as detrimental delays to the construction schedule. 

The WES3 (Wireless Emergency Communication System) is the latest wireless evacuation and emergency alarm solution developed to provide simple, quick, flexible, and reliable temporary fire alarm coverage to the potential hazards of wood frame construction sites. 

WES3 has the following components to build a complete temporary wireless fire alarm system for your wood frame construction project:

• Wireless control unit with SIM card for monitoring. (Can support up to 999 fully supervised wireless units)
• Wireless call points with sounder strobe (call point can be removed)
• Wireless dust resistant smoke detectors
• Wireless heat detectors
• Wireless interface module (connection to other systems, sprinkler switches, etc.) 
• Wireless link unit to extend the wireless range in large applications
• Equipment has a battery life span of three years when used under normal circumstances.
• All equipment has built in tamper switches on the backside of the back box.
• Call point unit has a medical alert function as well as the fire alarm activation.
• Call points are suitable for indoor or outdoor installation under IP55 conditions.
• Mesh network with approximately 200 feet of coverage per wireless unit.

Pictured from left to right: WES3 Wireless Dust Resistant Smoke Detector, WES3 Wireless Control Unit, WES3 Wireless Call Point with Sounder Strobe and Medical Alert

2. Hardwired Fire Alarm Systems

Temporary hardwired fire alarm systems involve traditional wiring and are typically used when parts of the structure are already enclosed. They provide reliable connectivity but are less flexible. Hardwired systems are also more costly and time consuming to install. Not to mention the wire used for the temporary system will be demolished and discarded once the permanent solution is installed. 

Example Configuration of a Hardwired Temporary Fire Alarm System:

• A headend Fire Alarm Control Panel (FACP) "Keep in mind this approach will require a dedicated 120 Volt circuit as well as battery backup. We dedicated circuit may not be available depending on the phase of construction."
• DACT for communication to the Central Station
• Smoke detectors placed on exposed wood and near temporary electrical setups.
• Heat detectors installed in high-risk areas like hot work zones.
• Protectowire linear heat detection cable
• Pull Boxes at exits or other strategic locations
• Connection to other systems or sprinkler switches
• Horns and or strobes.

Key Considerations for Fire Alarm Deployment

1. Placement of Detectors or Linear Heat Detection Cable

Smoke and or heat detectors should cover all high-risk areas such as:

• Near temporary power supplies and generators.
• Close to welding and cutting stations.
• Inside storage areas containing flammable materials.

2. Integration with Other Safety Systems

Alarms should integrate with temporary sprinkler systems or fire suppression tools.

Link alarms to construction site monitoring systems for real-time alerts.

3. Testing and Maintenance

Conduct weekly tests of fire alarm systems during construction.

Replace batteries and address faults promptly.

4. Compliance with NFPA 241 Standards

Conclusion

The use of fire alarm systems during wood frame construction is not only a compliance necessity but a practical strategy to ensure safety and minimize risks. By integrating modern technologies, adhering to regulatory standards, and prioritizing maintenance, construction teams can mitigate fire hazards effectively. These systems protect workers, investments, and the overall progress of the project, making them indispensable tools in the construction industry.

Smoke Control for Dummies

The Basics of Smoke Control Made Simple

Do you struggle to understand smoke control for fire alarm systems? No need to stress out as you are not alone. Let's break it down so it is easier to digest.

Smoke control is a vital aspect of fire protection engineering that aims to prevent the spread of smoke and toxic gases in buildings during a fire. Smoke control systems use various strategies, such as mechanical ventilation, pressurization, and compartmentation, to limit the movement of smoke and protect the occupants and property from its harmful effects. In this blog post, you will learn about the principles, design, and applications of smoke control systems, as well as the relevant codes and standards that govern their performance. You will also find some useful resources and references to help you further explore this topic. Whether you are a fire protection engineer, a building owner, an installer, or a curious reader, this blog post will provide you with valuable insights into the science and practice of smoke control.

Fire alarm systems are essential for the activation and operation of smoke control systems. Fire alarm systems can detect the presence of fire and smoke, alert the occupants and the fire department, and initiate the appropriate smoke control actions. Fire alarm systems can also monitor the status and performance of smoke control systems and provide feedback and control signals to the building management system. Fire alarm systems should be listed, compatible and integrated with the smoke control systems to ensure coordinated and effective response to fire emergencies.

Smoke control systems are complex and require careful design, installation, and maintenance. Smoke control systems should be based on a thorough analysis of the fire hazards, the building characteristics, the occupant needs, and the fire department operations. This approach is referred to as a smoke control report or rational analysis and is required to be completed by a registered fire protection engineer (FPE) per the International Building Code 2021 Section 909.4. The rational analysis or smoke control report will cover which type of smoke control system will be employed (passive vs. mechanical), which smoke control method will be utilized (pressure, exhaust, or air flow), construction methods, sequence of operation and inspection and testing procedures. There are other items covered within the report such as but not limited to stack effect, temperature effect of fire, wind effect, climate and duration of operation. 

What Codes and Standards Dictate Smoke Control Systems?

Smoke control systems are required and regulated by codes and standards that specify the performance requirements, design criteria, installation methods, and testing procedures for different types of buildings and occupancies. Some of the codes and standards that address smoke control systems are as follows:

- 2021 International Building Code (IBC) Chapter 9: Fire Protection and Life Safety    Systems
- ASHRAE Handbook of Smoke Control Engineering
- NFPA 92: Standard for Smoke Control Systems
- NFPA 101: Life Safety Code
- NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code

- Underwriters Laboratories, UUKL, Smoke Control Equipment (ANSI/864 units for     fire protective signaling systems)

Where are Smoke Control Systems Required per Code?

• Atriums (three stories or more) within covered malls - IBC 2021 Section 402.7.2.
• High-Rise Buildings - IBC 2021 Section 403.4.7.
• Atriums (three stories or more) - IBC 2021 Section 404.5.
• Underground Buildings - IBC 2021 Section 405.5.
• Mechanical Access Enclosed Parking Garage -IBC 2021 Section 406.6.4.2.
• Windowless Buildings Group I-3 - IBC 2021 Section 408.9
• Large Stages (Greater than 1,000sq' in Area or 50' in Height) - IBC 2021 Section 410.2.7.

Smoke Control Underground Structures

Smoke control systems can be classified into two main types: passive and mechanical.

Passive smoke control systems rely on the buoyancy and pressure differences of smoke and air to create ventilation openings that allow smoke to escape and fresh air to enter. Examples of natural smoke control systems are automatic opening vents (AOVs), atrium exhausts, opposed airflow, and smoke reservoirs.

• Openings are protected by automatic closing equipment or devices.
• Fire Dampers and Combination Fire Smoke Dampers
• Fire Rated Doors with Magnetic Hold Open Devices (Door Holders)
• Activation - Consult the Approved Rational Analysis / Smoke Control Report.
• Smoke Detectors / Heat Detectors located at fire rated doors and combination fire smoke dampers.
• Duct Smoke Detectors located at HVAC units for shutdown and combination fire smoke dampers. 
• Verification NOT required.
• Positive status of fan shutdown, door closure or damper activation is not required per IBC 2021 Section 909.12.1. Consult the rational analysis as it may supersede this code section. 
• Wiring
• In addition to the requirements of NFPA 70, all wiring regardless of voltage shall be fully enclosed within a continuous raceway.

Mechanical smoke control systems use fans, dampers, ducts, and other devices to create pressure differences and airflow patterns that control the direction and speed of smoke movement. Examples of mechanical smoke control systems are pressurization method, exhaust method, and air flow method systems.

• Pressurization Method - IBC 2021 Section 909.6. This approach utilizes pressure differences across smoke barriers to maintain a tenable environment zones adjacent to the smoke control zone of origin. 
• Per IBC 2021 section 909.6.1, the minimum pressure across the smoke barriers is 0.05" water gauge. 
• The maximum pressure differential is dependent upon the opening force of exit doors. Per IBC 2021 section 1010.1.3 #2, the door shall not require more than 30 pounds of force to set in motion and 15 pounds to fully open. 
• Required to have complete automatic control 2021 IBC section 909.12.3.1.
• In addition to the requirements of NFPA 70, all wiring regardless of voltage shall be fully enclosed within a continuous raceway.

Smoke Control Pressurization Method Detail

Smoke Control Stairwell Pressurization

• Exhaust Method - IBC 2021 Section 909.8. Where approved by the AHJ, the exhaust method may be utilized in large areas such as atriums or malls. Large smoke exhaust fans are utilized to evacuate smoke from the area. Makeup air (MAU) fans, automatic windows or doors may be used to replace air removed from the space by process of the smoke exhaust fan. When the smoke control exhaust method is utilized, the system must keep the smoke layer at least six feet above the highest level meant for egress within the smoke zone. Smoke Control Systems utilizing the exhaust method shall be designed in accordance with NFPA 92.
• Required to have complete automatic control 2021 IBC section 909.12.3.1.
• In addition to the requirements of NFPA 70, all wiring regardless of voltage shall be fully enclosed within a continuous raceway.

Smoke Control Exhaust Method Detail

Smoke Control Exhaust Method Atrium

• Air Flow Method - IBC 2021 Section 909.7. Where approved by the AHJ, the air low method is used for facilities with smoke migration through openings that are in the permanently open position. Airflow shall be directed to limit smoke migration from the zone. Airflow shall not exceed 200 feet per minute. Smoke Control Systems utilizing the air flow method shall be designed in accordance with NFPA 92.
• This method shall not be employed where either the quantity of air or the velocity of the airflow will adversely affect other portions of the smoke control system, intensify the fire, disrupt smoke plume dynamics or interfere with exiting. Airflow towards the fire shall not exceed 200 feet per minute. Where the calculated airflow exceeds this limit, the airflow method shall NOT be used. 909.7.1.
• Required to have complete automatic control 2021 IBC section 909.12.3.1.
• In addition to the requirements of NFPA 70, all wiring regardless of voltage shall be fully enclosed within a continuous raceway.

Smoke Control Airflow Method Detail

Duration of Operation

2021 IBC Section 909.4.6 states that all portions of active or engineered smoke control systems shall be capable of continued operation after detection of the fire event for a period of not less than either 20 minutes or 1.5 times the calculated egress time, whichever is greater. 

What is Verification or Positive Status?

Smoke control equipment utilized in a mechanical smoke control system will be required to comply with IBC 2021 Section 909.12.1 "Verification". This is also known as positive status. This is the process of utilizing fire alarm monitoring modules to supervise the activation of fans, dampers and doors in a smoke control event. The fire alarm monitor modules can be connected to variable frequency drives (VFDs), end switches, pressure differential switches, and current switches. These components provide contact closure to trip the associated fire alarm monitoring module to prove the fan, damper, or doors activated as intended per the approved rational analysis or smoke control port.  

Smoke Control Positive Status Equipment

Examples of how positive status for smoke control system can be wired to a fire alarm monitoring module. In these examples, a Notifier FDM-1 addressable dual monitor module is used to show how to wire up a damper actuator end switch for normally open and normally closed conditions. 

Fire Smoke Damper Status Monitoring Open Detail

Fire Smoke Damper Status Monitoring Open Detail

There is more to smoke control verification.

Another requirement for verification is a preprogrammed weekly self test sequence that shall report abnormal conditions audibly, visually, and by printed report. The pre-programmed weekly test shall operate ALL devices equipment and components used for the smoke control system.

Exception:

• Where verification of individual components tested through the preprogrammed weekly testing sequence will interfere with, and produce unwanted effects to, normal building operation, such individual components are permitted to be bypassed from the preprogrammed weekly testing, when approved by the AHJ and in accordance with BOTH of the following:

1. Where the operation of components is bypassed from the preprogrammed weekly test, presence of power downstream of all disconnects shall be verified weakly by a listed control unit.
2. Testing of all components bypassed from the preprogrammed weekly test shall be in accordance with section 909.20.6 of the International Fire Code IFC.

Example of a UL Listed Smoke Control Printer for Weekly Testing Reports

Fire Fighter's Smoke Control Panel

A fire fighter's smoke control panel for first responder purposes ONLY shall be provided and include manual control or override of automatic control for mechanical smoke control systems. If the facility is a high-rise structure or equipped with smoke protected assembly seating, the fire fighter's smoke control panel shall be installed with the fire command center (FCC). For all other buildings that may require a smoke control system, the fire fighter's smoke control panel shall be installed in an area approved by the AHJ adjacent to the fire alarm control panel. 2021 IBC Section 909.16.

Smoke Control Indication LEDs

All fans, dampers and other operating equipment shall be depicted on the fire fighter's smoke control panel along with clear indication of the airflow. Status indicators shall be included for all smoke control equipment annunciated by fan, damper and or zone. 2021 IBC Section 909.16.1.

1. Fans, Dampers and Other Operating Equipment NORMAL status = WHITE
2. Fans, Dampers and Other Operating Equipment OFF or CLOSED status = RED
3. Fans, Dampers and Other Operating Equipment ON or OPEN status = GREEN
4. Fans, Dampers and Other Operating Equipment FAULT status = AMBER/YELLOW

Smoke Control Switches

The following switches shall be provided on the smoke control panel to provide control capability over the complete smoke control equipment with the building: 2021 IBC Section 909.16.2

• ON-AUTO-OFF control over each individual piece of operating smoke control equipment that can be controlled from other sources within the building. This can include: stair pressure fans, smoke exhaust fans, supply fans, return fans, exhaust fans, elevator shaft fans, and other operating equipment used or intended for smoke control purposes. 

Smoke Control On-Auto-Off FAN Switch

• ON-AUTO-OFF control over individual dampers relating to smoke control and that are controlled from other sources within the building.

Smoke Control On-Auto-Off DAMPER Switch

• ON-OFF or OPEN-CLOSED control over smoke control and other critical equipment associated with a fire or smoke emergency and that can only be controlled from the fire fighters smoke control panel. 

Smoke Control On-Off DOOR Switch

Exceptions:

1. For complex systems (where approved), controls and indicators can be combined to control and indicate all components of a single smoke zone as a single unit. This allows for one switch to control multiple doors, dampers or fans within a single smoke zone. Example: Five dampers on the 10th floor that are all required to close upon smoke mode activation could be controlled and indicated on a single switch with LEDs on the 10th floor of the fire fighter's smoke control panel. 2021 IBC Section 909.16.2

The ON-OFF and OPEN-CLOSE switches shall have the highest priority over any control point within the building. Once automatic or manual control has been initiated from the fire fighter's smoke control panel, any other point in the building shall NOT contradict the control action. The only exception is power disconnects required by NFPA 70 is the only exception.

The AUTO position on three-position switches shall allow automatic or manual control action from other control points within the building. The AUTO position is the normal nonemergency position. 

Fire Fighter's Smoke Control Example

Fire Fighter's Smoke Control Panel

Smoke Control System Response Time

Per 2021 IBC section 909.17, upon receipt of an alarm condition at the fire alarm control panel fans, dampers, and automatic doors shall have achieved their proper operating state and the final status shall be indicated at the smoke control panel within 90 seconds. 

Power Requirements

• Standby Power Requirements per section 2702.2.17 of the 2021 IBC states that standby power shall be required for smoke control systems per sections 404.7, 909.20.7.2, and 909.21.5.
• Per section 909.12.1 the smoke control system shall monitor for the presence of power downstream of all disconnects. This will require a monitor module as well as an isolation relay (PR-1 or MR-101) at each power source. Make sure to pay attention to DAMPERS. A lot of the systems today will have a light switch adjacent to the damper actuator for the purpose of dropping power to the unit for service. If this is the case, you will need a monitor module and relay at each of these locations. Pay attention to this when bidding a project as this could potential add quite a few more modules than you may have accounted for.

How are smoke control systems commissioned and tested? 

Per the 2021 International Building Code Section 909.3, smoke control systems shall undergo special inspections and testing in place to verify the proper commissioning of the smoke control design in its final installed condition. As noted above, the rational analysis or smoke control report is required to include procedures that shall be used during the testing and commissioning process. 

• Per the 2021 IBC, Section 1705.19, Smoke Control Systems shall be tested by a special inspector. 
• As defined by the 2021 IBC Definitions, a special inspector is a qualified person employed or retained by an approved agency and approved by the building official as having the competence necessary to inspect a particular type of construction requiring special inspection. 
• Per the 2021 IBC, Section 1705.19.1, the Smoke Control Testing Procedure shall include:
1. During erection of ductwork and prior to concealment for the purpose of leakage testing and recording of device and equipment locations. This includes but not limited to fans, dampers, smoke detectors, waterflow switches, and verification equipment as outlined above.
2. Prior to occupancy and after sufficient completion for the purpose of pressure differential testing, air flow measurements and detection and control verification. 
• Per 2021 IBC, Section 1705.19.2, approved agencies for smoke control testing shall have expertise in fire protection engineering, mechanical engineering, and certification in air balancing. 

Reports

• Per 2021 IBC Section 909.18.8.3, A complete report of testing shall be prepared by the approved agency. The report shall include identification of all devices by manufacturer, nameplate data, design values, measured values, and identification tags. Your hope shall be reviewed by the responsible registered design professional and, when satisfied that the design intent has been achieved the responsible registered design professional shall sign seal and date the reporter.
• A copy of the final report shall be given to the fire code official along with an identical copy to be filed in an approved location at the facility. 2021 IBC 909.18.3.1.
• Charts drawings and other documents identifying and locating each component of the small control system as well as describing its proper function and maintenance requirements shall be maintained on file at the building and accompany the report required by section 909.18.8.3. Devices shall have an approved identifying tag on them consistent with the other required documentation and shall be dated indicating the last time they were successfully tested and by whom.

System Acceptance

• 2021 IBC Section 909.19 states, buildings that are required by this code to employ a smoke control system shall not be issued a certificate of occupancy until such time that the AHJ determines the provisions of chapter 909 have been fully complied with and that the fire department has received ample instruction on the operation both automatic and manual operation of the smoke control system. In addition, a written maintenance program complying with the requirements of section 909.20.1 of the International Fire Code (IFC) has been submitted and approved by the AHJ.

Plan on at least three inspections to commission a smoke control system.

• Pre-Test the system. Just like a fire alarm system, the sequence and equipment must be ran through prior to calling out the AHJ. The pre-test shall be conducted once all of the power is present, doors are installed, and all fire alarm/smoke control components are in place and programmed per the rational analysis, sequence of operations and approved documentation. Verify all indicators on the fire fighter's smoke control panel as well as manual and automatic operation. 
• Test with the third-party fire protection firm. Please note this can be the same firm that performed the rational analysis pending they have sufficient training and expertise in testing and commissioning smoke control systems. Depending on the individual conducting the third-party test you may have different requirements. However, you should still run through everything you tested during the pre-test as well as the pre-programmed weekly self-test. At the end of this test, the third party testing firm will issue a report per section 909.18.8.3 and give it to the Fire Code Official. 
• Final inspection with the AHJ / Fire Code Official. Once the third-party testing firm has issued their report, the AHJ will want to run through a final test. It is up to the AHJ on what will be tested. In my experience, some AHJs will trust the third-party testing firm and perform minimal testing to satisfy their needs. However, some AHJs will want to run through a complete test of all components. Keep this in mind when bidding projects as these tests can take quite a while depending on their complexity.